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Simulation

Lynn Kavcsak

Description

"Simulation is the imitation or representation of one system by a devise or technique that replicates the dynamics of the first system" (Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 109). This instructional technique enables adult learners to obtain skills, competencies, knowledge, or behaviors by becoming involved in situations that are similar to those in real life. Galbraith and Zelenak suggest that simulations, by design, provide opportunities for more direct experience with a particular phenomenon than do lectures (1991, p. 107). They can be as short as a two minute role play to enhance awareness of a certain principle, or as long as a semester game to focus on problem solving or decision making skills. Simulation exercise help participants with the thinking and logic of those whose place they place in any given scenario. These activities help individuals identify, investigate, and challenge long held assumptions that influence their thoughts and actions (Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 109).

Simulations represent real situations and are commonly used to facilitate practice of the application of rules or principles while remaining in a practical or safe environment. Simulations are widely used in engineering, architecture, drafting, medical training, teaching training, and mechanics. Many technical simulations are now computerized. Simulations vary from games in that there are not winners and losers and less structured rules exist. Simulations are fun and students learn by doing (Cranton, 2000, p. 123). Simulations, however, can be time consuming for the teacher to create. Fortunately, commercial and computerized simulations are available.

Before the simulation, the adult educator communicates the purpose to the learners making it a one-way line of communication from the facilitator to the learners. During the simulation, two-way communications between the learners, and between the learners and facilitator may occur. After the simulation, a two-way communication pattern continues with the facilitator providing feedback to learners and the learners describing their experiences and skills as a result of the simulation (Gilley as cited in Galbraith, 1998, p. 250).

Many kinds of simulations can be developed to enhance adult learning including computer simulations, educational games, role reversal, in-basket exercise, and role-play. Role-play is one of the most commonly used simulation exercises that depict the essential elements of the transactional process. In simulations and role-plays, students feel the heightened sensations associated with real life dilemmas, decisions, and problems which parallel actual experiences (Brookfield, 1990, p. 115).

Role-playing is the spontaneous acting out of an incident by several members of a group. A role-play is a scenario or skit in which students act out various parts or take on the role of a character (Cranton, 2000, p.122). Its main purpose is to convey human relationships and interactions and demonstrate how these factors influence outcomes of different situations. Role-playing is commonly used in situations where participants are learning interpersonal skills.

One procedure typically built into role-playing is a problem or issue that is presented to a group of individuals who are asked to act out assigned roles. “It is a form of elaborative rehearsal that causes students to interact with content and concepts, and ideally, create an episodic memory. It affords students the opportunity to examine and organize information, deal with issues, and create or re-create situations that have meaning. The roles students take on allow them to become immersed in situations. As they play that role, their emotions are involved and the emotional brain punctuates the moment” (Gregory and Chapman, 2002, p. 103).

Role-playing has the capability of bringing real life job or education-related problems of group members into the classroom. Also, role-playing generally provides several solutions to a problem and arouses interest (Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 111). As such, role-plays are useful in giving students a chance to try an alternative perspective without giving up their own. Students experience a variety of situations in a safe environment.

Role-plays can last for only a few minutes or may continue over several classes. Individuals may practice counseling skills or act as a planning committee. Another benefit is that role-plays can be used in many contexts and they may be informal and spontaneous or scripted and formal (Ross-Gorden, 2002, p. 69). Role-plays may be fairly structured with information provided about each role (Cranton, 2000, p. 122). For role-plays to be effective, debriefing must be thoroughly and carefully done. As such, it is always beneficial to have students act as observers and take notes. Feedback should be positive and constructive. Role plays place information and key concepts in a contextual learning situation and increase the chances for understanding and retention (Gregory and Chapman, 2002, p. 104).

Several excellent sources that give specific examples of simulations and role-plays include The Skillful Teacher (1990) by Stephen D. Brookfield, Developing Adult Learners (2000) by Kathleen Taylor, Catherine Marienau, and Morris Fiddler, and Mastering the Teaching of Adults (1991), by Jerold Apps.

Major Concepts

Simulations are useful complements to theoretical learning and are beneficial when used to test out theories, ideologies, and hypotheses. Simulations enable learners to actively engage in experiential educational encounters that provide for reflective thinking and alternative ways of incorporating this new reflectivity into action. Also, simulations and role-plays are strategies that create safe and enjoyable ways for people to try on different points of view in transformative learning. The method provides a sense of empowerment as prior beliefs or assumptions are challenged which lead the learner to question and gain new perspectives (Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 107).

Brookfield suggests that the realism of many simulations and role-plays means that students perceive them as being of genuine significance and relevance. Participation in simulations and role plays involves students in crossing psychomotor, affective, and cognitive domains and calls on them to be alert to a wide range of sensory stimuli. The emotional tone of such exercises, as a result, often engage students more directly and vividly than do reflective activities such as reading or listening (1990, p. 115).

A successful simulation is based on identifying appropriate learning objectives and designing a learning activity. Thiagarajan (as cited in Galbraith, 1990, p. 273) suggests simulation as appropriate for five learning objectives: 1. To develop highly complex cognitive skills such as decision making, evaluating, and synthesizing. 2. To impact positively on the learner’s values, beliefs, or attitudes. 3. To induce empathy. 4. To sharpen human relation shills such as interpersonal communication skills. 5. To unlearn negative attitudes or behaviors.

According to Peterson (1983, p. 156), instruction is likely to be well received it if includes both specific content and instructional methods that allow the content to be presented in applied ways (role plays and simulations). Because the transition from abstract to application can be difficult for many adult learners it is helpful when an example of behavior can be observed and replicated in one’s life.

Gilley (as cited in Galbraith, 1990, p. 272) discusses Kolb’s renewed interest in and attention to instructional methods which translate abstract ideas of academia into the concrete realities of peoples’ lives. Simulation is a method that provides a sharing of experiences and awareness while preserving the dignity of the learner. In addition, simulation attempts to address problems under real life conditions and discuss them completely afterward. Adult learners participate in learning activities in order to address such problems and obtain necessary skills to apply critical thinking skills. As such, they seek out relevant learning experiences.

Kolb ( as cited in Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 108) suggests that developing an understanding of the learning process promises a dual reward “a more refined epistemology that defines the varieties of truth and interrelationships and a great psychological understanding of how individuals acquire knowledge in its different forms.” As learners move from actors to observers they are able to reflect on immediate experiences that simulation exercises incorporate by design. Also, participants change roles from actor to observer enabling them to have a more in depth understanding of assumptions and behaviors.

Relationship to Teaching Perspective

The simulation teaching strategy fits within the Apprenticeship Perspective as described by Pratt (2005, p. 45) as emphasizing guided practice or learning to do or know something. The focus of is on mastery in the context of a person who has acquired a skill in a particular area of practice. Simulation as a method is an active process and not passive which require cooperation and collaboration between participants (2005, p. 89).

As novices enter situations of practice and perform role-plays that simulate problem framing and solving skills they gradually increase their level of expertise. There are stages of development that learners go through in simulations ranging from novice to expertise. Also, learners and teachers in the simulation and role-play process will go through key stages to develop mastery which include: observation, modeling, scaffolding, fading, and coaching (Pratt, 2005, p. 97).

Chiarelott (as cited in Galbraith, 1990, p. 273) suggests four principles that should be considered in the development of simulation activities. The first two illustrate the Apprenticeship Perspective’s focus on building on past experience in order to experience growth and learning and include: 1. The selection should be based on the continuity and interaction of the learners’ past, present and future experiences. 2. The sequences of experiences should be based on “experience continuum” in which the learners use knowledge gained from one experience to understand the meaning of the new experience.

Simulation could also fall under the Developmental Perspective as teachers are committed to developing particular ways of learning or problem solving. To paraphrase Daniel Pratt, this perspective helps learners think and problem solve like experts (2005, p. 47). An emphasis is placed on bridging the learner’s prior knowledge to allow for thinking that resembles that of a professional. A central theme is when learners can develop understanding (Arseneau and Rodenburg as cited in Pratt, 2005, p. 108).

The focus of this teaching method is on the development of learners’ thinking, reasoning, and judgment which is in line with the Developmental Perspective. Simulation can help learners to construct personal meaning. Approaches to learning in the Developmental Perspective are deep and holistic as learners “reach” and link content to other situations they may encounter in real life situations in either the workplace or academic environments (Arseneau and Rodenburg as cited in Pratt, 2005, p. 122).

The third and fourth principles that Chiarelott (as cited in Galbraith, 1990, p. 273) suggests need to be included in the development of simulation exercises reinforce the Developmental Perspective and include: 1. Actions and reflections should be used in learning experiences. 2. The subject matter should be discovered by the learner through a process of inquiry, exploring the significance of each experience.

In summary, the learner discovers and is not told. As Bateman noted (as cited in Pratt, 2005, p. 143), “What we discover ourselves lasts a long time; what we are told vanishes into our notes."

Lastly, simulation is applicable to the Nurturing Perspective due to the need in role-play to demonstrate the ability to “see from another’s point of view” (Pratt, 2005, p. 165). Also, as participants utilize personal experiences to simulate desired results, there has to be empathy on both the part of the instructor and learners for this experience to be meaningful. If the facilitator and the adult learners don’t practice empathic skills such as attentive listening and engagement with nonverbal cues, then the role-plays will be useless.

Benefits

There are several benefits to simulations. According to Waddel (as cited in Galbraith, 1990, p. 274), it provides an opportunity to apply learning to new and rewarding situations which allows for new discoveries. Second, learners become active participants in the learning process as opposed to passive recipients of information. Perhaps the greatest benefit is the ability of the learner to gain from a simulation without paying the consequences of a wrong choice which could occur under normal circumstances (Gilley as cited in Galbraith, 1998, p. 244).

Another advantage of simulations includes motivation among participants as they act out specific scenarios and rationalize their way through possible consequences of behavior. Daloz (as cited in Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 109) states that “it is only by bringing our changes into conscious awareness that we can be assured that they will stay put.” Brookfield notes the significance of people justifying their reasons when making difficult choices about a particular course of action in simulation exercises which also reveal at least partially their assumptions and basic moral values (as cited Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 109).

Another benefit is that discussions are realistic as they focus on observed behaviors that represent real life circumstances. Learners often adopt a more worldly view through such sharing and applications of the new information (Galbraith, 1990, p. 274). Feedback is immediate and learners become more receptive to new ideas when they’re exposed to real-life situations provided through simulations. Also, because simulation enables a number of learners to participate in a learning experience rather than just a few, it is a cost effective method. Lastly, simulations liven up what could become mundane routines. Role-playing can bring novelty into the adult learning situations and provide for active participation among group members. According to Bernstein (as cited in Galbraith and Zelenak, 1991, p. 110), benefits of role playing also include: giving participants practice in applying principles learned, developing insights into human relations, providing concrete examples of the critical concepts, maintaining interests, and providing a non threatening channel to express feelings. Also, the advantages of role-playing include sharing the strengths, weaknesses, and consequences of certain behaviors or attitudes and depicting divergent points of view.

Drawbacks and Cautions

Several disadvantages result from the use of simulation. Most importantly, simulation demonstrates how people may behave but not necessarily how they will behave in real life situations. Next, if students aren’t adequately prepared for a simulation experience with appropriate skills, knowledge, and desired attitudes, confusion from overly complex situations can occur with the learners. Some may feel embarrassed if they are unfamiliar with the problems associated with the simulation exercise.

In addition, the results of a single simulation should not be considered the sole basis for actions which can lead often to inappropriate behavior and mistrust. Role-playing is not considered appropriate in cases where there is only one answer to a problem (Galbraith, 1990, p. 275). Also, by its very nature role-playing can take on very personal overtones. Some groups can get off track as they go off on unrelated tangents during simulation exercises. Next, the act of role-playing is time consuming and often overused. If time isn’t built in for follow-up discussion in order to understand the meaning of what transpired, simulation is a useless activity. Finally, some simulations, particularly high tech, are costly to design. As a result, the cost becomes a major disadvantage to its use.

Final Thoughts

Simulation and role-play work well in the training courses I am currently involved in. Patricia Cranton addresses how certain students may be reluctant to participate and may feel uncomfortable or silly performing (2000, p. 122). The Job Skills/HRD courses mandate participation as a requirement for a certificate and successful completion. Thus, I end up coaxing introverted people into role-play activities. Gilley suggests that for simulations to be successful, active learner involvement is required. Also, participation by all participants helps with motivation enabling all to comment on the exercise’s effectiveness (Gilley as cited in Galbraith, 1998, p. 250). I have been pleased by the “energy, enthusiasm, and activity that is generated” (Cranton, 2000, p. 122).

Simulations foster experiential experiences and learning. Participants are able to develop new insights as well as utilize past experiences which will impact future learning. This method should only be used when deemed appropriate, however, since a simulation or role-play requires adequate time and resources to develop and produce (Gilley as cited in Galbraith, 2000, p. 252). After the completion of the simulation I agree with Apps that it’s important to spend time discussing what was learned, what difficulties people had, and how particular problems were solved (1991, p. 62).

References

Apps, J. (1991). Mastering the Teaching of Adults. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Brookfield, S. (1990). The Skillful Teacher: On Technique, Trust, and Responsiveness in the Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Cranton, P. (2000). Planning Instruction for Adult Learners (2nd ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Wall and Emerson, Inc.

Galbraith, M. (1990). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company.

Galbraith, M. (Ed.). (1998). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction (2nd ed.). Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Galbraith, M. (Ed.). (1991). Facilitating Adult Learning: A Transactional Process. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Ross-Gordon, Jovita (Ed.). (2002, Spring). Contemporary Viewpoints on Teaching Adults Effectively. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, no 93. San Francisco: Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gregory, G. and C. Chapman (2002). Differentiated Instructional Strategies: One Size Doesn’t Fit All. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press, Inc.

Peterson, D. (1983). Facilitating Education for Older Learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Pratt, D. and Associates (2005). Five Perspectives on Teaching in Adult and Higher Education. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Taylor, K, C. Marienau, and M. Fiddler (2000). Developing adult Learners: Strategies for Teachers and Trainers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., a Wiley Company.