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--Lekavcsa 22:21, 28 March 2007 (EDT)Storytelling

Description

Storytelling is an ancient art form and valuable to human expression. It is the interactive art of using or conveying words, images, sounds, or actions to reveal the elements and images of a story while encouraging the listener’s imagination. Stories have been shared in every culture as a means of education, entertainment, preservation of culture and to instill knowledge and moral values. As such, stories are typically used to teach, explain, or entertain. Crucial elements of storytelling include plot and characters, as well as the narrative point of view (National Storytelling Network, 2006).

A story is not comprised of simply facts; they contain facts, feelings, senses, colors, metaphors, and associations. There are many kinds of stories such as fables, parables, myths, and legends. Stories are of many moods including humorous, inspirational, didactic or educative, frightening, tragic, and romantic. According to Wacker and Silverman (2003, pp. 6 - 7), there are several types of stories that are suitable in teaching or training including crucible, imbroglio, Minerva, credibility, pattern, instructional stories, and vignettes. Crucible stories are tales of overcoming hardship. Minerva stories include parables from the Bible or folk stories. Credibility stories are from current events or new sources. Pattern stories cover a long time frame and demonstrate change. Instructional stories are used to teach and the “action is minimized, and the narrative is maximized” (Walker and Silverman, 2003, p. 7). A vignette is a small story or anecdote. The sound of story is dominant in lives ranging from the quick accounts of a day’s events to the ongoing saga of finding missing children.

Human beings use stories to communicate meaning in a dynamic way. In the oral tradition, storytelling includes the teller and audience. The International Webster New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1975, p. 965) defines storyteller as, “One who tells stories, true or fictitious; a writer of stories; a liar or fibber. In the professional world, managers, trainers, facilitators, distance learning administrators, instructional designers, speakers, and teachers use stories. They utilize storytelling to coach, mentor, introduce the topic, set the tone and context, incorporate storytelling activities into programs to increase retention, build fun, consistent methods for improving learning, clarify concepts, and provide technical training, communication skills and team development (http://thestorynet.com/about_stories.htm, 2003).

The way a storyteller narrates facts creates the experience. The audience perceives the message and creates personal mental images with the words heard and gestures seen. This experience determines what the listeners remember and integrate, as they become co-creators of the art. Storytellers often adjust their words to respond both to the listeners and to the moment. Generally, a storyteller doesn’t memorize a set text, but learns a series of script-like incidents that form a narrative plot with a beginning, middle and end. Some types of stories, however, may be read, rather than memorized (Koppett and Richter, 2000).

Major Concepts

Storytelling is a fundamental aspect of being human: we make sense of the complex and unordered world of our experience by crafting story lines (Bruner as cited in Shank, 2006, p. 4). The stories we tell and hear help us connect our actions to our thoughts and emotions, and enable us to imagine new possibilities and find moral grounding in sometimes uncertain circumstances (McEwan & Kieren; Witherell & Noddings as cited in Shank, 2006, p. 4). Telling stories for teachers becomes a means for making sense out of everyday occurrences and for connecting with colleagues. Judith Warren Little refers to storytelling among teachers as an “omnipresent feature of teachers’ work lives” (as cited in Shank, 2006, p. 4).

Langellier (as cited in Shank, 2000, p. 5) describes storytelling as a social practice in an analysis of the theoretical understandings of the role of personal narratives in our everyday lives. In a five-part continuum, Langellier outlines the function of personal narrative in relation to communication, performance, and interpretation. At one end of the continuum is the individualistic view as a means of self-representation. At the opposite end is the view of negotiating power relationships. Shank reviews the five theoretical orientations in explaining why teachers share stories and how storytelling shapes their teaching practices which include:

1. Personal narrative as a story-text. Stories from the past are told to represent the self for a particular and significant reason in the present. 2. Personal narrative as a storytelling performance. Stories are forms of embodied personal communication that take place in a social context to affect the immediate audience in a particular way. 3. Personal narrative as conversational interaction. Stories are constructed in the natural course of conversational interaction with a meaningful purpose in the present, but connected to past experiences and future possibilities. 4. Personal narrative as social process. Stories are told as a means to link private and public discourse, thus connecting individuals not only to immediate social context, but to broader social contexts outside the storytelling setting. 5. Personal narrative as political praxis. Stories are told as a political function serving particular interests to shape identities and perceptions (as cited in Shank, 2006, p. 5).

The significance of Shank’s study confirms the centrality of storytelling in teachers’ lives. Storytelling validates teachers’ experiences and dilemmas. It also is an important element in building the collegial relationships that foster serious and sustained collaborative deliberation that is vital for supporting school cultures that support learning for all students. The researcher shows that storytelling can be a vital way to create collaborative spaces where individual practices are revealed, understood and supported (Shank, 2006, p. 11).

Storytelling is also used for educational purposes. The literature provides examples of storytelling used by instructors. Teachers utilize narratives to pose critical questions, introduce ideas and concepts, frame multiple contexts, and encourage students to reflect by contrasting abstract concepts with concrete experiences. “Narratives are a way to understand communities and contexts as cultural resources that serve such purposes as self-identification, self-criticism, and social solidification” (Gergen as cited in Martin, 2000). Witherall notes the opportunity for “imagining the experience and feelings of others through story and metaphor provide a form of educational encounter that renders us human and frees the moral imagination“(as cited in Martin, 2000).

Teachers use narrative to help students understand content, share feelings, and convey the information in a culturally significant way. “The teacher’s stories illustrate and compare multiple contexts, and are a vehicle to discussion that helps students draw comparisons to their experiences. The teacher’s self-disclosure provides a personalization of the content and is a way of initiating discussion designed to encourage student understanding” (as cited in Martin, 2000).

Downs, Javidi, and Nussbaum (as cited in Martin, 2000) report the “teacher’s use of self-disclosure was primarily for clarifying course material, emphasizing content, and helping students organize their thought and perceptions.” As such, storytelling as a teaching method can provide students with an awareness of their teacher’s feelings and cognitive process. As Witherall (as cited in Martin, 2000) notes, teaching through narratives “has to do with the power of story and metaphor in offering up possibilities for human action and feeling . . . The teller or receiver of stories can discover connections between self and other, penetrate barriers to understanding, and come to know more deeply the meanings of his or her own historical and cultural narrative.”

Stories are told to introduce concepts and ideas, help students interpret course content, and draw connections to their life experiences which contextualize meaning and reinforce understanding (Martin, 2000). Erickson and Mohatt (as cited by Martin, 2000) finding suggest that instructors discover ways of accommodating community principles into teaching. Discussions of everyday life such as work, personal knowledge, and experience provide students with the opportunity for social interaction, sharing of opinions, and the development of a classroom community. McLaren and Lanksher (as cited in Martin, 2000) note that students are able to explore different perspectives “for rethinking the relationship of self and society, self and other, and for deepening the moral vision of society.” Narratives portray relationships and multiple perspectives and enable students to “envisage a place for themselves—a personal world” (Bruner as cited by Martin, 2000).

Another example in the review of the literature illustrates the use of storytelling in the sciences. Hadzigeorgiou discusses the role of storytelling in the teaching and listening of physics. He presents the main historical events concerning the discovery of current electricity. Then the instructor outlines the framework to include the following components: Ideas to cite wonder, main plot of the story, ideas to be learned by the pupils, content knowledge, human values and the moral of the story (2006, p. 41).

Storytelling is also used in the process of healing with the oppressed. Leseho and Block address how storytelling can be necessary to “reclaim ones’ voice and to find others who will listen with the commitment to receive and understand” (2005, p. 175). Clients come to their counselors and tell stories from the darkness of their experiences; children disappeared, children stolen, bodies broken and spirits denied. In listening, counselors resonate to their clients’ voices. They enter that darkness where the story still survives, brining the light of hope and meaning” (Leseho and Block, 2005, p. 184).

Performance literacy is addressed in an article utilizing story development with students of all age groups. The author cites consistent benefits and a powerful way for teachers to engage students in exploring content and expressing their understanding of materials in any academic area. Dillingham suggests that since students readily involve themselves in storytelling—it becomes gratifying and engaging. By performing their own stories, students provide an opportunity for community members and parents to see them creating and performing authentic literature while conducting themselves in a professional manner (Dillingham, 2005, p. 72).

Much of the literature that exists focuses on storytelling as a method with elementary age children. Pellegrini and Galda (1982, p. 49) look at the relative effects of three modes of story reconstruction training on the development of children’s story comprehension. The researchers find that thematic fantasy play participants score higher in story comprehension than their peers in drawing and discussion storytelling groups. Page (1983, p. 45) also examines whether dramatization enhances story comprehension. The author reports children engaged in dramatization rather than simply listening to storytelling have better understanding and comprehension.

In addition, the use of storytelling and storytelling activities is applicable in soft skills areas such as team building situations or teaching communication skills (Koppett and Richter, 2000). In recent years, business consultants have turned to storytelling as a vehicle for enhancing organizational communication, performance, and learning, as well as the management of change. Imaginative leaders, educators, self-proclaimed prophets and gurus use stories as powerful devices for managing meaning. Storytelling is also used as an important tool in technical training. Often technical people have to communicate with non-technical individuals or convey a complex topic. Stories have been utilized to make such a connection between the new information and familiar experiences (TheStoryNet-About stories).

Storytelling is often used in technical training to break the ice, establish credibility and empathy, and allow participants to get settled. Since storytelling as a form of communication flows one way, learners can also use this instructional technique. The method of storytelling is utilized to introduce participants and share information through stories (Koppett and Richter, 2000). Examples include: Tell me a story of how you got your name? Share a war story from your work life.

Storytelling is also used a means of assessment to gain information about participants’ expectations, previous knowledge, and applicable skills (Koppett and Richter, 2000). Several prompts include: What did you get out of this workshop? Tell me a true story of a great success in order for us to gain tips of the best practices. Tell me a story of frustration or disappointment

There’s also been an increase in the interest of storytelling within organizations. It’s common knowledge that people tell stories in and about organizations. The function of storytelling for group cohesion or relieving tension is known to exist within organizations. The importance of stories in organizational research is also on the rise and being recognized as an essential organizational phenomenon which merits attention (http://www.reference.com/Encyclopedia/Organizational storytelling).

Tsou, Wang, and Tzeng (2000, pp. 17 – 18) found storytelling to be a practical and powerful teaching tool especially for language learning. Teachers in Taiwan instructing English cited several problems including having little prior experience with integrating storytelling into language teaching, locating appropriate stories, and lacking the cultural and language abilities to handle storytelling in English. The researchers developed a multimedia story composing module and story re-play module and implemented in instruction. The results supported that the quality of teaching and learning can be improved and students’ enjoyment and success in learning a language may increase.

There are several sources I would direct instructors to for examples of storytelling. First, A Tao of Narrative: Dynamic Splicing of Teacher Stories by Xin Li has many examples. Storytelling Professionally: The Nuts and Bolts of a Working Performer by Harlynne Geisler gives sample stories from a professional storyteller’s standpoint. Next, Humanizing the Teaching of Physics through Storytelling: the Case of Current Electricity by Yannis Hadzigeorgiou has a wonderful scientific example for instructors in that field. Finally, Koppett and Richter outline a tool called the Story Spine which is used to create well-structured stories and is worth reading in How to Maximize Training Efficiency Through Storytelling.

Relationship to Teaching Perspective

Storytelling is a strategy that can fortunately be used in all five of Pratt’s Perspectives on teaching in adult and higher education due to its versatility with regard to the type of story and the context. The Social Reform Perspective would enable teachers to utilize the storytelling method to convey a “stated ideal or set of principles linked to a vision of a better order” (Nesbit as cited in Pratt, 2005, p. 173). Teachers or students interested in creating a better society could use storytelling toward that end. Radical educators using the storytelling strategy would encourage and probe listeners to search for answers through the type of story and content delivered (p. 192).

Storytelling could also fit with the Nurturing Perspective which emphasizes interpersonal relationships. Since storytelling is such a part of the communication process between human beings, it can be effectively utilized in this perspective as well. Authentic nurturing interaction is spontaneous as is the act of storytelling. One of the main premises of the Nurturing Perspective is the development of self esteem and self-efficacy (T’Kenye as cited in Pratt, 2005, p. 169). Oral stories have traditionally been passed from generation to generation. People share stories to preserve culture, values and tradition. This act of storytelling brings people together in kind, sensitive, trusting, honest, and compassionate ways which promote growth and increase self-esteem.

Next, in the Developmental Perspective Arseneau and Rodenburg (as cited in Pratt, 2005) challenge the granted assumption “that teaching necessarily results in learning.” Therefore, teaching from this perspective using the storytelling method would have more to do with “good learning than good teaching” (p. 111). The focus of a storyteller could easily be on “the development of learners’ thinking, reasoning, and judgement.” The storyteller’s role then becomes to create “the vivid, multi-sensory images, actions, characters, and events—the reality—of the story in his or her mind, based on the listener’s own past experiences, beliefs, and understandings” (National Storytelling Network, 2006).

Finally, a teacher whose preference it is to use either the Transmission or Apprenticeship Perspective could also utilize storytelling to enhance the subject matter with credibility stories to convey content and crucible stories or vignettes to enhance real-life examples.

Benefits

• Storytelling fits into almost every facet of life. It teaches morals without preaching; encourages reading; and develops relationships between the tellers and the listeners. • Storytelling creates a sense of engagement or dialog with the audience. An effective storyteller will also give just enough clues to have the listener imagine or figure out what is going on in the story. • The art of storytelling draws upon other art forms such as acting, oral interpretation, and performance studies. • Mixes of viewpoints and voices assist in telling extremely complex stories. Research shows people are more willing to deal with difficult topics if they are given multiple viewpoints and are able to hear different sides (Storytelling—Information from Reference.com). According to Abrahamson (1998, p. 448), “the ability to decipher meaning from a mountain of facts can be attributed to the facilitation offered by storytelling.” • “Addressing the unfamiliar is one way to foster critical engagement” (storytelling –Information from Reference.com). A good storyteller gives the listener or reader a sense of making order out of chaos which leads to satisfaction. • The trainer may need little more than personal experience and imagination to create a story for teaching or training. Stories come from books, news articles, personal experiences, and other trainers (Wacker and Silverman, 2003). • “Stories are the most efficient way of storing, retrieving, and conveying information” (Gargiulo, 2006, p. 5). As a result, stories can increase the likelihood of learners retaining information. • Storytelling is the only form of communication that bridges learning styles: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. Not only do stories bridge learning styles but they also cross “boundaries of culture, profession and age” (Harris and Barnes, 2006, p. 351).

Drawbacks and Cautions

• The audience may not respond. Generally the body language of the audience reveals their interest. Factors such as a hot classroom, gymnasium or auditorium, poor ventilation, tired adult learners, hungry students, time of day (too early or too late) can all affect participants’ desire to respond or be engaged in the storytelling process. • The audience members won’t participate. There are a number of logical reasons why listeners may not participate which include: learning disabilities, shyness, hearing problems, lack of English, and depression. The audience may also not have been encouraged to participate which may result in lack of interest or involvement. Encouraging the listeners to keep the story going by participating or repeating words and gestures may illicit a better response. • The listeners may misunderstand the story. If the storyteller mumbles or rushes through the words, listeners won’t understand. A lack of clarity is the biggest reason for the audience not following the story. Also, listeners need time to process what’s being said. Effectively using pauses to give the audience time to comprehend the story line may solve this problem. Because storytelling can cross boundaries, “the same story can evoke totally different responses in different people” (Gargiulo, 2006, p. 5). • Another pitfall is poor storytelling or stories that illustrate the wrong point. Trainers may lose credibility if they choose the wrong type of story. Stories that celebrate boasting, bragging, or the demeaning of others are all poor choices (Wacker & Silverman, 2003; Harris & Barnes, 2006). • Trainers may cause the audience to feel uncomfortable and unable to learn if the storytelling is too personal and inappropriate leading to disengagement. • Lack of practice on the part of the storyteller can lead to poor delivery which may cause the storytelling to fall flat. Additionally, if they jump to the key point of a story too soon, “trainers can miss the opportunity to build learners’ interest and momentum” (Wacker and Silverman, 2003, p. 29).

Final Thoughts

Storytelling is an art worth promoting and can be used in so many ways in the educational world. Stories are fundamental to both learning and communication (Koppett & Richter, 2000; McLellan, 2002; Gargiulo, 2006). Storytelling is interactive using words and actions to reveal the elements of a story while encouraging listener’s imagination. Storytelling involves a two-way interaction as the responses of the listeners influence the telling of the story by the storyteller. Also, storytelling uses words whether it a spoken language or manual language such as American Sign Language. Storytelling uses actions such as gesture and physical movement although some storytellers don’t use nonverbal language behaviors. Next, storytelling always involves the presentation of a story—a narrative. Finally, storytelling encourages the active imagination and past experiences, beliefs, and understandings of the listener. Thus, the listener becomes the co-creator of the story as experienced which provides context and allows the listener to assign meaning. (www.storynet.org, 2006).

References

Abrahamson, C.E. (1998). Storytelling as a Pedagogical Tool in Higher Education. Education, 118 (3), 440 – 451.

Arseneau, R. & Rodenburg, D (2005). The Development Perspective: Cultivating ways of Thinking. In D. Pratt & Associates, Five Perspectives on Teaching in Adult or Higher Education (pp. 105 – 149). Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company.

Dillingham, Brett. (2005). Teaching Tips: Performance Literacy. International Reading Association (pp. 72-80).

Gargiulo, T.L. (2006). Power of Stories. Journal for Quantity & Participation, 29 (1), 4-8.

Geisler, M. (1997). Storytelling Professionally: The Nuts and Bolts of a Working Performer. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://www.lib.ncsu.edu:2083/nlreader/nlreader.dll?bookid=18408&filename=Page_iii.html.

Harris, J. and Barnes, B. (2006). Leadership Storytelling. Industrial and Commercial Training 38 (7), pp. 350-353.

The International Webster New Encyclopedic Dictionary. (1975). Chicago, IL: The English Language Institute of America.

Koppett, K.and Richter, M. (2000). The StoryNet. Retrieved on March 20, 2007 from http://www.thestorynet.com/articles_essays/training_efficiency,htm.

Leseho, J. and Block, L. (May 2005). Listen and I Tell You Something: Storytelling and Social Action in the Healing of the Oppressed. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, Vol. 33, No. 2.

Li, X. (2005). A Tao of Narrative: Dynamic Splicing of Teacher Stories. Curriculum Inquiry 35:3. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Martin, J. (April 2000). Oh, I Have a Story: Narrative as a Teacher’s Classroom Model. Retrieved on March 26, 2007 from Science Direct-Teaching and Teacher Education. Vol. 16, Issue 3, pp. 349-363.

National Storytelling Network. (2006). What is Storytelling? Retrieved March 27, 2007 from http://www.storynet.org/Resources/KnowledgeBank/whatisstorytelling.html.

Page, A. (1983). Children’s Story Comprehension as a Result of Storytelling and Story Dramatization: A Study of the Child as Spectator and as Participant. University of Massachusetts, University Microfilms International. By Deasy, R., (Ed.). In Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Academic and Social Development.

Pellegrini, A. and Galda, L. (Fall 1982). The Effects of Thematic Play Training on the Development of Children’s Story Comprehension. American Educational Research Journal, 19(3): 443-452. By Deasy, R., (Ed.). In Critical Links: Learning in the Arts and Student Academic and Social Development.

Reference.com/Encyclopedia/Organizational storytelling (2006). Organizational Story. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from http://reference.com/browse/wiki/Organizational_storytelling.

Reference.com/Encyclopedia/Organizational storytelling (2006). Organizational Storytelling. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from http://reference.com/browse/wiki/Organizational_storytelling.

Shank, M. (August 2006). Teacher Storytelling: A Means for Creating and Learning Within a Collaborative Space. Retrieved on March 25, 2006 from ScienceDirect-Teaching and Teacher Education. Vol. 22, Issue 6, pp. 711-721.

Storytelling-Information from Reference.com (2007). Storytelling. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from http://www.reference.com/search?q=storytelling.

The StoryNet.com. (2003). About Stories. Retrieved March 27, 2007 from http://thestorynet.com/about_stories.htm.

T’Kenye, C. (2005). The Nurturing Perspective: Facilitating Self Efficacy. In D. Pratt & Associates, Five Perspectives on Teaching in Adult or Higher Education (pp. 151-172). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.

Tsou, W. Wang, W. and Tzeng, Y. (August 2006). Applying a Multimedia Storytelling Website in Foreign Language Learning. Vol. 47, Issue 2, pp. 17-28. Retrieved on March 26, 2007 from http://www.lib.ncsu.edu:2119/science?_ob=articleURL&_udi=B6VCJ-4DTKGM6-2&_us...

Wacker, M. and Silverman, L. (2005. Stories Trainers Tell: 55 Ready to Use Stories to Make Training Stick. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.